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Application Notes
A wide range of Application Notes are available to assist with the operation and theory of measurement instruments. Some of the most popular are listed below. Many of these are quite old publications, but are "classics" and have become the definitive documents for certain measurement techniques.
Spectrum Analysis
Spectrum Analysis Basics (AN 150)
This historic Application Note has been the definitive document describing the theory and operation of spectrum analyzers and their application for over 30 years. The Note includes information on the fundamentals, harmonic mixing, preselection, phase noise, and signal identification. Also included is a glossary of terms.
Spectrum Analysis Amplitude and Frequency Modulation (AN 150-1)
Modulation is the act of translating some low-frequency or base-band signal (voice, music, data) to a higher frequency. Why do we modulate signals? There are at least two reasons: to allow the simultaneous transmission of two or more baseband signals by translating them to different frequencies, and to take advantage of the greater efficiency and smaller size of higher-frequency antennae.
The Fundamentals of Signal Analysis (AN 243)
This Application Note is a primer for those who are unfamiliar with the advantages of analysis in the frequency and modal domains and with the class of analyzers we call dynamic signal analyzers.
Spectrum Analyzer Measurements and Noise (AN 1303)
Noise - it is the classical limitation of electronics. In measurements, noise and distortions limit the dynamic range of test results. In this four-part Application Note 1303, the characteristics of noise and its direct measurement are discussed in Part I. Part II contains a discussion of the measurement of noise-like signals exemplified by digital CDMA and TDMA signals.
Spectrum Analysers - Back to Basics Seminar
This paper from the 1997 Back to Basics Seminar covers everything from a definition of spectrum analysis to the types of instruments used to make the measurements. Topics include resolution, amplitude measurements sensitivity, dynamic range, LO stability, harmonic mixing, and the use of spectrum analyzers in AM, FM, pulsed RF, and digital radio.
Optimizing RF and Microwave Spectrum Analyzer Dynamic Range (AN 1315)
The dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer can be interpreted in many ways. This Application Note examines each interpretation, and shows that the maximum noise and distortion-free dynamic range is the most useful interpretation for most spectrum analyzer measurements. Techniques for optimizing dynamic range for various common measurements are included.
Optimizing Spectrum Analyzer Amplitude Accuracy (AN 1316)
This Application Note covers the factors affecting the accuracy (or uncertainty) of amplitude measurements made with spectrum analyzers, and explains how to calculate worst-case uncertainty in general situations. It will help you analyze a measurement and decide what procedure to follow to minimize overall uncertainty.
Optimizing Spectrum Analyzer Measurement Speed (AN 1318)
Whether you are installing a new, high-speed production line, making transmitter measurements in the field, or designing a new low-noise amplifier, the speed of your spectrum analyzer will greatly affect your productivity. With the speed that the latest generation of spectrum analyzers offers, spectrum analysis need never be a bottleneck in your testing process.
Vector Signal Analysis & Digital Wireless
Digital Modulation in Communications Systems — An Introduction (AN 1298)
This Application Note introduces the concepts of digital modulation used in many communications systems. Emphasis is placed on explaining the tradeoffs that are made to optimize efficiencies in system design.
Wireless Test Solutions (AN 1313)
This Application Note covers (1) How digital communications transmitters work, (2) Essential transmitter tests and important test equipment characteristics, and (3) Troubleshooting techniques for common impairments.
RF Testing of Wireless LAN Products (AN 1380-1)
This application note looks at the modulation technology behind several wireless LAN standards and the measurement techniques that can be used to troubleshoot and quantify their RF performance. The emphasis will be on the newest and most successful of these standards:802.11b,802.11a,and HIPERLAN Type 1 and Type 2. The principal focus of this document is the physical RF layer of wireless LAN.
Investigating Bluetooth Modules - The First Step in Enabling Your Device with a Wireless Link
Protocol Evolution for the Mobile Internet - Application Note 1372
Testing and Troubleshooting Digital RF Communications Receiver Designs (AN 1314)
This Application Note covers the fundamental measurement principles involved in testing and troubleshooting digital communications receivers, particularly those used in digital RF cellular systems. Measurement setups are provided for receiver performance tests and troubleshooting tips are given.
Testing CDMA Base Station Amplifiers (AN 1307)
This application note covers the testing needs and issues encountered in the development of CDMA high-power base station amplifiers.
Network Analysis
Understanding the Fundamental Principles of Vector Network Analysis (AN 1287-1)
Network analysis is the process by which designers and manufacturers measure the electrical performance of the components and circuits used in more complex systems. When these systems are conveying signals with information content, we are most concerned with getting the signal from one point to another with maximum efficiency and minimum distortion. Vector network analysis is a method of ...
Exploring the Architectures of Network Analyzers (AN 1287-2)
This Application Note explains that Network analyzers have become one of the most important tools for characterizing the performance of high-frequency components and devices. A modern vector network analyzer can measure a component's magnitude, phase, and group delay, show port impedances on a Smith chart, and, with time-domain capability, show the distance from a test port to an impedance ...
Applying Error Correction to Network Analyzer Measurements (AN 1287-3)
Only perfect test equipment would not need correction. Imperfections exist in even the finest test equipment and cause less than ideal measurement results. Some of the factors that contribute to measurement errors are repeatable and predictable over time and temperature and can be removed, while others are random and cannot be removed.
Network Analyzer Measurements: Filter and Amplifier Examples (AN 1287-4)
The network analyzer is used for a variety of device and component characterization tasks in both laboratory and production environments. This highly accurate instrument can evaluate both active and passive components for measurements of a filter and amplifier, as will be demonstrated in this Application Note. With the addition of time-domain capability, a network analyzer can also gate out ...
Improving Throughput in Network Analyser Applications (AN 1287-5)
In today’s competitive environment, prices for electronic components are continually decreasing. Reducing manufacturing cost by improving throughput, while maintaining product quality, is an important goal for many production test engineers and managers. The topic of improving throughput is very broad, and it can span methods from how to minimize testing and the number of specifications to using just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing with a Kanban inventory-control system. This note will not cover broad throughput issues such as whether distributed testing versus centralized testing is more efficient or cost effective. Instead, this application note will focus only on test processes that include network analyzers.
Using a Network Analyzer to Characterize High-Power Components (AN 1287-6)
This Application Note describes linear and nonlinear measurements of high-power components and how to use a network analyzer for making them. It covers the power limitations of a network analyzer, and special network-analyzer equipment configurations for high-power measurements. How to improve the accuracy of high-power measurements and solve common problems when making high-power measurements ...
Improving Network Analyzer Measurements of Frequency-translating Devices (AN 1287-7)
This Application Note explores current test equipment solutions and techniques that can be used to accurately characterize and test frequency-translating devices. Frequency-translating devices present unique measurement challenges since their input and output frequencies differ. These require different measurement techniques than those used for a linear device such as a filter.
Simplified Filter Tuning Using Time Domain (AN 1287-8)
This Application Note describes a method of tuning a filter using the time-domain response of its return loss, which makes filter tuning vastly easier. It is possible to tune each resonator individually, since time-domain measurements can distinguish the individual responses of each resonator and coupling aperture.
In-Fixture Measurements Using Vector Network Analyzers (AN 1287-9)
This Application Note describes the use of vector network analyzers when making measurements of components in fixtures. We will explain the need for fixtures, the selection of fixtures, measurement error, how to minimize the errors, basic fixture construction and the construction and characterization of required calibration standards, if commercial fixtures are not available for your device.
De-embedding and Embedding S-Parameter Networks Using a Vector Network Analyzer (AN 1364-1)
Traditionally RF and microwave components have been designed in packages with coaxial interfaces. Complex systems can be easily manufactured by connecting a series of these separate coaxial devices. Measuring the performance of these components and systems is easily performed with standard test equipment that uses similar coaxial interfaces.
Time Domain Reflectometry Theory (AN 1304-2)
This application note attempts a concise presentation of the fundamentals of TDR and then relates these fundamentals to the parameters that can be measured in actual test situations. Before discussing these principles further we will briefly review transmission line theory.
Measuring Non-insertable Devices (PN 8510-13)
The majority of devices used in real-world microwave systems are non-insertable because of the connectors employed. In the past, these devices were theoretically not measurable meaning that fully traceable and verifiable data could not be provided. Now the Agilent Technologies 8510C with an S-parameter test set offers a new technique that provides accuracy rivaling the best insertable device ...
Phase Noise
Pulsed Carrier Phase Noise Measurements (AN 1309)
This Application Note discusses basic fundamentals for making pulsed carrier phase noise measurements.
E5500 Series Phase Noise Measurement Solutions - Overview
The Agilent Technologies E5500 series of phase noise measurement solutions have been designed to minimize the production, ATE test time for one-port VCOs, DROs, crystal oscillators, and synthesizers and to maximize the capability for R&D benchtop applications.
Signal Generators
8 Hints for Making Better Measurements Using Analog RF Signal Generators (AN 1306-1)
Signal sources provide precise, highly stable test signals for a variety of component and system test applications. Signal generators add precision modulation capabilities, and are used to simulate system signals for receiver performance testing. This Application Note is a guide to help you improve the accuracy of your measurements that involve using RF analog signal sources.
Generating Custom, Real-World Waveforms (AN 1360)
This application note demonstrates how modern design software and test instrumentation can be used together to create and analyze signal waveforms for 3G (third-generation) wireless systems.
Signal Generator Spectral Purity (AN 388)
This Tutorial is an Application note that describes what spectral purity is and its components. Using applications, the importance of good spectral purity is explained.
Customizing Digital Modulation with the Agilent ESG-D Series Real-time I/Q Baseband Generator, Option UN8
This Product Note describes how to generate and download data to the ESG-D for digital modulation. This note is written for test engineers, programmers, application developers, and others familiar with the principles of digital modulation.
Generating and Downloading Data to the Agilent ESG-D RF Signal Generator for Digital Modulation
Many testing applications for wireless digital communications systems require specific data patterns modulated on an RF carrier. Included are examples of only a few of the possible applications, and how those are implemented with the Agilent Technologies ESG-D signal generator with baseband I/Q generator Options 1EH, UN3, UN4, UN8, or UN9.
Generating Digital Modulation with the Agilent ESG-D Series Dual Arbitrary Waveform Generator
This product note will introduce the hardware structure and features of Option UND, dual arbitrary waveform generator, then follow with techniques for creating I and Q waveforms to download. Hardware limitations will also be addressed. Program examples and utilities for creating digital waveforms are included in Appendices.
8920 RF Communications Test Set
8920 Application Handbook
This is the definitive document showing practical steps how to make a wide range of Transmitter and Receiver measurements with the 8920. Details on advanced measurements such as diplexer and filter tuning, antenna return-loss measurements, field strength measurements etc. are also covered in detail.
Power Meters
Fundamentals of RF and Microwave Power Measurements (AN 64-1C)
This application note reviews the popular techniques and instruments used for measuring power, discusses error mechanisms, and gives principles for calculating overall measurement uncertainty. It describes metrology-oriented issues, such as the basic national standards, round robin inter-comparisons and traceability processes. This will help users to establish and unbroken chain of calibration ...
Choosing the Right Power Meter and Sensor
In general, power sensors are designed to match user signals and modulation types. Power meters are designed for matching the user’s measurement data requirements. That’s why you can choose from a versatile line of 33 different power sensors and 6 power meters from Agilent Technologies.Frequency
Counters
Fundamentals of Electronic Counters (AN 200)
This classic Application Note is aimed at introducing to the reader the basic concepts, techniques and the underlying principles that constitute the common denominator of this myriad of counter products. It discusses the fundamentals of the conventional counter, the types of measurements it can perform, and the important considerations that can have significant impact in measurement accuracy and ...
Fundamentals of Microwave Frequency Counters (AN 200-1)
This somewhat lengthy, classic Application Note addresses the microwave counter designer's need for down-conversion techniques. It describes and compares techniques and outlines additional considerations in choosing a microwave counter. Includes some applications of the Agilent 5342A.
4 Hints for Making Better Microwave Counter Measurements
With the advancement of technology, there is an increasing tendency for measurement tools to overlap each other’s capabilities. Spectrum analyzers can now measure frequency (a function once reserved for counters), microwave counters can now measure power (a function once reserved for power meters), universal counters can now measure microwave frequencies (a function once reserved for microwave ...
Noise Figure
Fundamentals of RF and Microwave Noise Figure Measurements (AN 57-1)
This Application Note is a comprehensive review of fundamentals of noise characterization of two-port networks. The Note defines the numerous terms used in noise figure analysis and surveys the methods used to make measurements.
10 Hints for Making Successful Noise Figure Measurements (AN 57-3)
To achieve accurate and repeatable results at RF or microwave frequencies, measurement uncertainties and barriers to measurement repeatability must be minimized. It is important to understand the nature of the error contributors and identify which of these can be influenced or changed to improve the quality of the results.
Noise Figure Measurement Accuracy-The Y-Factor Method (AN 57-2)
This Application Note explains that anyone involved in the low-noise microwave business knows that noise figure is a 'money number'. When measuring and specifying noise figure, the more accurate a noise figure measurement is, the smaller the uncertainty guardband needed on the noise figure specification. The smaller the uncertainty guardband, the lower the noise figure specification.
Practical Noise-Figure Measurement and Analysis for Low-Noise Amplifier Designs (AN 1354)
Understanding and accurately measuring noise figure (NF) in low-noise elements has become particularly important to the development of next-generation communications systems. This Application Note examines the process of making practical noise figure (NF) measurements of low-noise amplifiers (LNA's), a capability that can have a significant impact on cost, performance, and required design time ...
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